When is survey technique not appropriate

The authors describe conducting a follow-up phone call or mail inquiry for nonresponders, using the Dillman et al. Survey research is a useful and legitimate approach to research that has clear benefits in helping to describe and explore variables and constructs of interest. Survey research, like all research, has the potential for a variety of sources of error, but several strategies exist to reduce the potential for error.

Advanced practitioners aware of the potential sources of error and strategies to improve survey research can better determine how and whether the conclusions from a survey research study apply to practice.

The author has no potential conflicts of interest to disclose. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. J Adv Pract Oncol. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer.

Winona State University, Rochester, Minnesota. E-mail: jponto winona. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is for non-commercial purposes.

This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Open in a separate window. Table 1. Footnotes The author has no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

References 1. The validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. An updated literature review. Journal of psychosomatic research. Buerhaus P. Are nurses ready for health care reform? A decade of survey research. Nursing Economics. Check J. When an agency has a political need to create a survey process that allows anyone interested in responding, it can do a self-selected process. A written survey can be distributed in public locations, such as the City Hall or Library, emailed directly, emailed, or published in the city newsletter or the local newspaper.

A self-selected survey can be an excellent public relations tool and the right way of giving information to the public. Learn more: Research Design. A researcher must have a proper medium to conduct research and collect meaningful information to make informed decisions. Also, it is essential to have a platform to create and deploy these various types of market research surveys.

QuestionPro is a platform that helps not only to create but also to deploy different types of surveys. One can choose from these existing survey templates or create a survey of their own, all this just at the click of a button. Though you're welcome to continue on your mobile screen, we'd suggest a desktop or notebook experience for optimal results. Survey software Leading survey software to help you turn data into decisions.

Research Edition Intelligent market research surveys that uncover actionable insights. Customer Experience Experiences change the world. Deliver the best with our CX management software. Workforce Powerful insights to help you create the best employee experience. Types of Survey with Examples. Types of a survey based on deployment methods: 1.

Online surveys: One of the most popular types is an online survey. Paper surveys: As the name suggests, this survey uses the traditional paper and pencil approach. Telephonic Surveys: Researchers conduct these over telephones. One-to-One interviews: The one-to-one interview helps researchers gather information or data directly from a respondent. Types of a survey based on the frequency of deployment 1.

Cross-sectional studies These surveys are administered to a small sample from a larger population within a small time frame. Learn more: Cross-sectional Study 2. Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are those surveys that help researchers to make an observation and collect data over an extended period.

Learn more: Longitudinal Study 3. Retrospective survey: A retrospective survey is a type of study in which respondents answer questions to report on events from the past. Self-selected type of survey research — Newspapers, mail, Internet, written questionnaires: When an agency has a political need to create a survey process that allows anyone interested in responding, it can do a self-selected process.

The researcher can specify the probability that each member of the population will be selected for the sample. When the researcher cannot specify the probability that each member of the population will be selected for the sample.

A probability sampling method in which each individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample. A method of probability sampling in which larger clusters of individuals are randomly sampled and then individuals within each cluster are randomly sampled.

When a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the entire population and therefore produces inaccurate results. Skip to content Chapter 9: Survey Research. Explain the difference between probability and nonprobability sampling, and describe the major types of probability sampling. Define sampling bias in general and nonresponse bias in particular.

List some techniques that can be used to increase the response rate and reduce nonresponse bias. List the four major ways to conduct a survey along with some pros and cons of each. Sample Size and Population Size Why is a sample of 1, considered to be adequate for most survey research—even when the population is much larger than that? Online Survey Creation There are now several online tools for creating online questionnaires.

After a questionnaire is created, a link to it can then be e-mailed to potential respondents or embedded in a web page. The following websites are among those that offer free accounts. Although the free accounts limit the number of questionnaire items and the number of respondents, they can be useful for doing small-scale surveys and for practicing the principles of good questionnaire construction.

A small note of caution: even when Canadian researchers are performing research on Canadian residents, if the data is held on US servers, it is subject to be seized as granted through the Patriot Act. To avoid infringing on any rights, the following is a list of online survey sites that are hosted in Canada: Fluid Surveys Simple Survey Lime Survey There are also survey sites hosted in other countries outside of North America.

Survey research usually involves probability sampling, in which each member of the population has a known probability of being selected for the sample.

Types of probability sampling include simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling. Sampling bias occurs when a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the population and therefore produces inaccurate results. The most pervasive form of sampling bias is nonresponse bias, which occurs when people who do not respond to the survey differ in important ways from people who do respond. The best way to minimize nonresponse bias is to maximize the response rate by prenotifying respondents, sending them reminders, constructing questionnaires that are short and easy to complete, and offering incentives.

Surveys can be conducted in person, by telephone, through the mail, and on the Internet. In-person interviewing has the highest response rates but is the most expensive.

Mail and Internet surveys are less expensive but have much lower response rates. Internet surveys are likely to become the dominant approach because of their low cost.

Discussion: If possible, identify an appropriate sampling frame for each of the following populations. If there is no appropriate sampling frame, explain why. Lahaut, V. Non-response bias in a sample survey on alcohol consumption. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 37 , — Survey methodology. A research tool should be tested on a pilot sample of members of the target population. This process will allow the researcher to identify whether respondents understand the questions and instructions, and whether the meaning of questions is the same for all respondents.

Where closed questions are used, piloting will highlight whether sufficient response categories are available, and whether any questions are systematically missed by respondents. When conducting a pilot, the same procedure as as that to be used in the main survey should be followed; this will highlight potential problems such as poor response. All participants should be given a covering letter including information such as the organization behind the study, including the contact name and address of the researcher, details of how and why the respondent was selected, the aims of the study, any potential benefits or harm resulting from the study, and what will happen to the information provided.

The covering letter should both encourage the respondent to participate in the study and also meet the requirements of informed consent see below. The concept of sample is intrinsic to survey research. Usually, it is impractical and uneconomical to collect data from every single person in a given population; a sample of the population has to be selected [ 7 ].

This is illustrated in the following hypothetical example. A hospital wants to conduct a satisfaction survey of the patients discharged in the previous month; however, as it is too costly to survey each patient, a sample has to be selected. In this example, the researcher will have a list of the population members to be surveyed sampling frame.

It is important to ensure that this list is both up-to date and has been obtained from a reliable source. The method by which the sample is selected from a sampling frame is integral to the external validity of a survey: the sample has to be representative of the larger population to obtain a composite profile of that population [ 8 ]. There are methodological factors to consider when deciding who will be in a sample: How will the sample be selected?

What is the optimal sample size to minimize sampling error? How can response rates be maximized? The survey methods discussed below influence how a sample is selected and the size of the sample. There are two categories of sampling: random and non-random sampling, with a number of sampling selection techniques contained within the two categories.

The principal techniques are described here [ 9 ]. Generally, random sampling is employed when quantitative methods are used to collect data e. Random sampling allows the results to be generalized to the larger population and statistical analysis performed if appropriate.

The most stringent technique is simple random sampling. Using this technique, each individual within the chosen population is selected by chance and is equally as likely to be picked as anyone else. Referring back to the hypothetical example, each patient is given a serial identifier and then an appropriate number of the population members are randomly selected. Alternative random sampling techniques are briefly described.

In systematic sampling, individuals to be included in the sample are chosen at equal intervals from the population; using the earlier example, every fifth patient discharged from hospital would be included in the survey. Stratified sampling selects a specific group and then a random sample is selected. Using our example, the hospital may decide only to survey older surgical patients. Bigger surveys may employ cluster sampling, which randomly assigns groups from a large population and then surveys everyone within the groups, a technique often used in national-scale studies.

Non-random sampling is commonly applied when qualitative methods e. Non-random sampling deliberately targets individuals within a population. There are three main techniques. Finally, 3 snowballing: the sample is identified as the survey progresses; as one individual is surveyed he or she is invited to recommend others to be surveyed.

It is important to use the right method of sampling and to be aware of the limitations and statistical implications of each. The need to ensure that the sample is representative of the larger population was highlighted earlier and, alongside the sampling method, the degree of sampling error should be considered. Sampling error is the probability that any one sample is not completely representative of the population from which it has been drawn [ 9 ].

Although sampling error cannot be eliminated entirely, the sampling technique chosen will influence the extent of the error. Simple random sampling will give a closer estimate of the population than a convenience sample of individuals who just happened to be in the right place at the right time. What sample size is required for a survey? There is no definitive answer to this question: large samples with rigorous selection are more powerful as they will yield more accurate results, but data collection and analysis will be proportionately more time consuming and expensive.

Essentially, the target sample size for a survey depends on three main factors: the resources available, the aim of the study, and the statistical quality needed for the survey. If statistical analysis is to be performed on the data then sample size calculations should be conducted.

For practical recommendations on sample size, the set of survey guidelines developed by the UK Department of Health [ 11 ] should be consulted. Larger samples give a better estimate of the population but it can be difficult to obtain an adequate number of responses. It is rare that everyone asked to participate in the survey will reply. To ensure a sufficient number of responses, include an estimated non-response rate in the sample size calculations. Response rates are a potential source of bias.

The results from a survey with a large non-response rate could be misleading and only representative of those who replied. French [ 12 ] reported that non-responders to patient satisfaction surveys are less likely to be satisfied than people who reply. In any study, the final response rate should be reported with the results; potential differences between the respondents and non-respondents should be explicitly explored and their implications discussed.

There are techniques to increase response rates. A questionnaire must be concise and easy to understand, reminders should be sent out, and method of recruitment should be carefully considered. A most useful review of methods to maximize response rates in postal surveys has recently been published [ 14 ]. Researchers should approach data collection in a rigorous and ethical manner.

The following information must be clearly recorded:. How, where, how many times, and by whom potential respondents were contacted. How many people were approached and how many of those agreed to participate. How did those who agreed to participate differ from those who refused with regard to characteristics of interest in the study, for example how were they identified, where were they approached, and what was their gender, age, and features of their illness or health care.

What was the response rate i.